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Rev 1.2.1
How the Internet works!
How the Internet works!
A guide to the interworkings of the internet
1 - 20 of 25 Posts
Joined
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8,052 Posts
Introduction
Many users on the internet only care about a couple things, "Can I get to my e-mail?", "It works so thats all that matters!", "Look at the cute cuddly LOLCats.". Well, do you know what comprises the internet and how each mechanism works? What if something went down, would you know how to respond to a situation like this? Say that you have your Internet Line go down, however your modem still responds to pings, the noise to signal ratio is looking good, and your ISP blames it on you not powercycling your modem. Would you know how to respond? I want to give you the knowledge to better understand the aspects of how the Internet works, and the hardware used in the Internet system. What will be covered is the hardware, makeup, and construction of LANs, WANs, and software devoted to networking.
Many users on the internet only care about a couple things, "Can I get to my e-mail?", "It works so thats all that matters!", "Look at the cute cuddly LOLCats.". Well, do you know what comprises the internet and how each mechanism works? What if something went down, would you know how to respond to a situation like this? Say that you have your Internet Line go down, however your modem still responds to pings, the noise to signal ratio is looking good, and your ISP blames it on you not powercycling your modem. Would you know how to respond? I want to give you the knowledge to better understand the aspects of how the Internet works, and the hardware used in the Internet system. What will be covered is the hardware, makeup, and construction of LANs, WANs, and software devoted to networking.
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8,052 Posts
Modems
Lets go through some of the basics. Everyone has some type of modem in their house. Whether it be for the internet, telephone line, TV, or any other device that uses a modulated line. A modem is exactly this. A Modulating/De-Modulating mechanism. The function of the modem is to encode a signal so that it can be carried over a form of media from point A to point B and be easily decoded on the other end. Mostly anything that is brought to you by data from the internet is directly transferred through a modem at some point. Originally, the modem started out as a 300 bit/ps piece of hardware looking like this:
![]()
Credit to: Jason "Textfiles" Scott for uploading the picture.
This piece of hardware is basically an acoustic coupler, picking up the fluctuations and tones of the signal. What usually would happen would there would be two modems, similar to that of a client and server, however these modems would be called the Originate modem and the other called an Answer modem. However, though you may be thinking that the Originate modem would be the computer, and the the Answer Modem would be the server it is in reality the opposite. The computer was always the answer modem, and the dumb terminal was the Originate modem. These modems would connect to that dumb terminal to gain access to the web, however these days, the modem connects to the Internet Service Provider (ISP) and the ISP connects us to the internet. How this operates is that we have a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). Once the information (packet) has been transferred to the modem, it is then transferred to the ISP and to the server. The same steps are required to get the data from the Server back to your computer. There are different types of connections and classifications for modems.
And future implementations of networking technology will most likely also have modems.
![]()
To understand how a cable modem works, you need to understand a bit about electricity. A signal operates over an electrical field. In the instance of cable or co-axial connections, the data being sent to the modem and TV receiver are able to be put into the same electrical range. Electrical Range is commonly referred to as Bandwidth. Bandwidth is measurable in Hertz, since the transfer rate is measured in Hertz. The only ways to increase and boost transmission range is to increase the amount of lines or increase the speed on the lines. Due to the standards of coaxial cables, these cables can carry several hundreds of megahertz on a given line. However, bit rate is not solely dependent on frequency.
A Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modem works on a Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) infrastructure. This infrastructure is basically using the telephone lines that are already in place for day to day internet services. The modem at the customer premise communicates through provider equipment known as the DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer). The modem negotiates a bandwidth value with the remote end based on cabling conditions. The service generally supports speeds ranging from ~1 to 25 Mbps depending on the standard used. A downfall to DSL, however, is that the signal loses its strength the longer it travels from the provider's office to your equipment. This rating is measured and negotiated between points with values known as "Attenuation" (Signal Loss).
![]()
A phone-line modem is what several used in the 90's, and still use today either because cable, DSL, or fiber is not in the area, or as a backup for businesses when their own internet system goes down. One of the earliest forms of Internet Connectivity. Since recent forms of dial-up modems max out their transfer rate at 56kpbs, ISP's have come up with server side compression. This allows images, text, and other media on the requested media to be compressed to allow a higher rate of transfer. How this system works is similar to the older methods of modems. It uses a Line-to-Line connection to initiate and connect to the ISP's hub.
Cellular modems are becoming increasingly widespread as faster and longer range technologies are being developed and implemented. They are a cost effective solution for generally lower-bandwidth demands and convenience as there is no additional cabling required to reach the remote end. Cellular modems come in a variety of formats including laptop 'air cards', router modules and even as an integrated component in cell phones.
Fiber-Optic 'Modems' can also generally be referred to as 'Media Converters'. Their main function is to convert the beams of light received through the fiber into another transport medium such as copper RJ-45, which exist in most computers and networking equipment today.
Lets go through some of the basics. Everyone has some type of modem in their house. Whether it be for the internet, telephone line, TV, or any other device that uses a modulated line. A modem is exactly this. A Modulating/De-Modulating mechanism. The function of the modem is to encode a signal so that it can be carried over a form of media from point A to point B and be easily decoded on the other end. Mostly anything that is brought to you by data from the internet is directly transferred through a modem at some point. Originally, the modem started out as a 300 bit/ps piece of hardware looking like this:
Credit to: Jason "Textfiles" Scott for uploading the picture.
This piece of hardware is basically an acoustic coupler, picking up the fluctuations and tones of the signal. What usually would happen would there would be two modems, similar to that of a client and server, however these modems would be called the Originate modem and the other called an Answer modem. However, though you may be thinking that the Originate modem would be the computer, and the the Answer Modem would be the server it is in reality the opposite. The computer was always the answer modem, and the dumb terminal was the Originate modem. These modems would connect to that dumb terminal to gain access to the web, however these days, the modem connects to the Internet Service Provider (ISP) and the ISP connects us to the internet. How this operates is that we have a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). Once the information (packet) has been transferred to the modem, it is then transferred to the ISP and to the server. The same steps are required to get the data from the Server back to your computer. There are different types of connections and classifications for modems.
- Cable
- DSL/ADSL/VDSL
- Phone-Line
- Cellular
- Fiber-Optic
And future implementations of networking technology will most likely also have modems.
To understand how a cable modem works, you need to understand a bit about electricity. A signal operates over an electrical field. In the instance of cable or co-axial connections, the data being sent to the modem and TV receiver are able to be put into the same electrical range. Electrical Range is commonly referred to as Bandwidth. Bandwidth is measurable in Hertz, since the transfer rate is measured in Hertz. The only ways to increase and boost transmission range is to increase the amount of lines or increase the speed on the lines. Due to the standards of coaxial cables, these cables can carry several hundreds of megahertz on a given line. However, bit rate is not solely dependent on frequency.
A Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modem works on a Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) infrastructure. This infrastructure is basically using the telephone lines that are already in place for day to day internet services. The modem at the customer premise communicates through provider equipment known as the DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer). The modem negotiates a bandwidth value with the remote end based on cabling conditions. The service generally supports speeds ranging from ~1 to 25 Mbps depending on the standard used. A downfall to DSL, however, is that the signal loses its strength the longer it travels from the provider's office to your equipment. This rating is measured and negotiated between points with values known as "Attenuation" (Signal Loss).
A phone-line modem is what several used in the 90's, and still use today either because cable, DSL, or fiber is not in the area, or as a backup for businesses when their own internet system goes down. One of the earliest forms of Internet Connectivity. Since recent forms of dial-up modems max out their transfer rate at 56kpbs, ISP's have come up with server side compression. This allows images, text, and other media on the requested media to be compressed to allow a higher rate of transfer. How this system works is similar to the older methods of modems. It uses a Line-to-Line connection to initiate and connect to the ISP's hub.
Cellular modems are becoming increasingly widespread as faster and longer range technologies are being developed and implemented. They are a cost effective solution for generally lower-bandwidth demands and convenience as there is no additional cabling required to reach the remote end. Cellular modems come in a variety of formats including laptop 'air cards', router modules and even as an integrated component in cell phones.
Fiber-Optic 'Modems' can also generally be referred to as 'Media Converters'. Their main function is to convert the beams of light received through the fiber into another transport medium such as copper RJ-45, which exist in most computers and networking equipment today.
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8,052 Posts
Networking Infrastructure
You may be wondering what is included in my field for the Networking Infrastructure. Well, every home network is made up of a combination of the following:
Note: All layers mentioned here are in terms of the OSI Model unless otherwise noted
You may be wondering what is included in my field for the Networking Infrastructure. Well, every home network is made up of a combination of the following:
Note: All layers mentioned here are in terms of the OSI Model unless otherwise noted
- Hub/Repeater
A Hub or Repeater operates on Layer 1 of the OSI Model (Physical). It is a "dumb" device since the only objective it has is to transfer bits between one interface to the next interface. The device forwards all bits received toward all of its other ports. It does not think for itself, so a packet "collision" is possible when two packets are sent at the same time to any port. - Switch
Most switches operate on Layer 2 of the OSI Model (Data Link). It is considered a smarter device than a hub due to the fact that it uses a Media Access Control (MAC) address table to correlate frames to specific interfaces. The role of switch is to expand connectivity to multiple devices in a network. In most households we use Layer 2 Switches, which are responsible for memorizing the MAC address table and what port/interface is associated with that entry. Switches, however, can operate on multiple layers of the OSI model. A switch with layer 3 capabilities can take up some of the functions of a router below for routing packets between different networks or subnets. - Router
A Router operates on Layer 3 of the OSI Model (Network). There are many different types of routers though they function at a similar fundamental level. The primary functions of a router are to transfer packets between different networks, negotiate routing protocols with other routers and manage routes. These protocols and routes allow the router to know about where to forward packets so they can reach their intended destination. Many home routers receive a default route from the ISP to forward all traffic to the ISPs router specifically. From there, the ISP router maintains a full table of routes on the Internet in order to have your traffic reach its destination. The Internet as a whole is mostly comprised of routers. Usually much more powerful, comprising of several different types of connections including serial, phone lines, Ethernet, fiber-optic or coaxial cables. - Wireless Access Points (WAP)
These can either be extensions of a current wireless network or allow for a wireless network to be created from a wired only topology. These devices operate on the IEEE 802.11 standards, which is the underlying creation of "Wi-Fi". These operate on Radio Waves in a means of communications. These are broken down to two different classifications. Wireless Frequency in Megahertz, and Wireless Channel. The listing is below
| Channel | Frequency (MHz) |
| 1 | 2412 |
| 2 | 2417 |
| 3 | 2422 |
| 4 | 2427 |
| 5 | 2432 |
| 6 | 2437 |
| 7 | 2442 |
| 8 | 2447 |
| 9 | 2452 |
| 10 | 2457 |
| 11 | 2462 |
| 12 | 2467 |
| 13 | 2472 |
| 14* | 2484 |
- Networking Interface Cards (NIC)
Networking interface cards are what essentially connects your home network together with wires. These NICs can be used in any type of connection field (IE: Ethernet, Fiber-Optic, etc). Usually, most home and residential NICs only contain a RJ-45 (networking) jack connection. - Wireless Network Interface Cards (WNIC)
Wireless network cards are the wireless equivalents of their NIC brothers. However, these cards operate on wireless radio frequencies. They offer varying inter-operable standards for connectivity among a variety of frequency ranges depending on the card (2.4/5 GHz).
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8,052 Posts
Internet Addressing
At a residential connection, to interact and communicate with anyone you will need an Internet Protocol Address (IP Address). Each country and region are leased a certain range of numbers which are given to the Regional Internet Registry. The Regional Internet Registry is then responsible for handing out these lease ranges to Local Internet Registries or the National Service Registries, which then hand them out to Internet Service Providers, and then the ISP leases them to the consumer. This forms a hierarchical pyramid, always leading back up the IANA.
A full log of how the IP Prefixes are set up are listed here in plain text or here in XML format. They are copied here and put in a code tag below:
As you can see, there are several different designations for each range. These are mainly the regional providers. There are 5 Regional Providers, AfriNIC, APNIC, ARIN, LACNIC, RIPE NCC. They cover the following areas, Africa, Asia and Pacific, North America, Latin America and the Caribbeans, Europe along with the Middle East and Central Asia, respectively.
The Internet Engineering Task Force is also a high contributor in this process, they work closely with several departments in regards to Internet Standards. Including but not limited to, W3C, ISO, IEC, and other agencies that are either governmental or not. Many of their members also currently have written several RFC technical data's.
Useful content:
http://www.iana.org/numbers/
At a residential connection, to interact and communicate with anyone you will need an Internet Protocol Address (IP Address). Each country and region are leased a certain range of numbers which are given to the Regional Internet Registry. The Regional Internet Registry is then responsible for handing out these lease ranges to Local Internet Registries or the National Service Registries, which then hand them out to Internet Service Providers, and then the ISP leases them to the consumer. This forms a hierarchical pyramid, always leading back up the IANA.
A full log of how the IP Prefixes are set up are listed here in plain text or here in XML format. They are copied here and put in a code tag below:
Code:
Taken from iana.org , for more information regarding the notes field, please take a look at the hyperlinked url above.
Code:
Prefix Designation Date Whois Status [1] Note
000/8 IANA - Local Identification 1981-09 RESERVED [2]
001/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
002/8 RIPE NCC 2009-09 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
003/8 General Electric Company 1994-05 LEGACY
004/8 Level 3 Communications, Inc. 1992-12 LEGACY
005/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
006/8 Army Information Systems Center 1994-02 LEGACY
007/8 Administered by ARIN 1995-04 whois.arin.net LEGACY
008/8 Level 3 Communications, Inc. 1992-12 LEGACY
009/8 IBM 1992-08 LEGACY
010/8 IANA - Private Use 1995-06 RESERVED [3]
011/8 DoD Intel Information Systems 1993-05 LEGACY
012/8 AT&T Bell Laboratories 1995-06 LEGACY
013/8 Xerox Corporation 1991-09 LEGACY
014/8 IANA UNALLOCATED [4]
015/8 Hewlett-Packard Company 1994-07 LEGACY
016/8 Digital Equipment Corporation 1994-11 LEGACY
017/8 Apple Computer Inc. 1992-07 LEGACY
018/8 MIT 1994-01 LEGACY
019/8 Ford Motor Company 1995-05 LEGACY
020/8 Computer Sciences Corporation 1994-10 LEGACY
021/8 DDN-RVN 1991-07 LEGACY
022/8 Defense Information Systems Agency 1993-05 LEGACY
023/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
024/8 ARIN 2001-05 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
025/8 UK Ministry of Defence 1995-01 whois.ripe.net LEGACY
026/8 Defense Information Systems Agency 1995-05 LEGACY
027/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
028/8 DSI-North 1992-07 LEGACY
029/8 Defense Information Systems Agency 1991-07 LEGACY
030/8 Defense Information Systems Agency 1991-07 LEGACY
031/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
032/8 AT&T Global Network Services 1994-06 LEGACY
033/8 DLA Systems Automation Center 1991-01 LEGACY
034/8 Halliburton Company 1993-03 LEGACY
035/8 MERIT Computer Network 1994-04 LEGACY
036/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
037/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
038/8 Performance Systems International 1994-09 LEGACY
039/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
040/8 Eli Lily & Company 1994-06 LEGACY
041/8 AfriNIC 2005-04 whois.afrinic.net ALLOCATED
042/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
043/8 Administered by APNIC 1991-01 LEGACY
044/8 Amateur Radio Digital Communications 1992-07 LEGACY
045/8 Interop Show Network 1995-01 LEGACY
046/8 RIPE NCC 2009-09 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
047/8 Bell-Northern Research 1991-01 LEGACY
048/8 Prudential Securities Inc. 1995-05 LEGACY
049/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
050/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
051/8 UK Government Department for Work and Pensions 1994-08 whois.ripe.net LEGACY
052/8 E.I. duPont de Nemours and Co., Inc. 1991-12 LEGACY
053/8 Cap Debis CCS 1993-10 LEGACY
054/8 Merck and Co., Inc. 1992-03 LEGACY
055/8 DoD Network Information Center 1995-04 LEGACY
056/8 US Postal Service 1994-06 LEGACY
057/8 SITA 1995-05 LEGACY
058/8 APNIC 2004-04 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
059/8 APNIC 2004-04 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
060/8 APNIC 2003-04 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
061/8 APNIC 1997-04 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
062/8 RIPE NCC 1997-04 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
063/8 ARIN 1997-04 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
064/8 ARIN 1999-07 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
065/8 ARIN 2000-07 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
066/8 ARIN 2000-07 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
067/8 ARIN 2001-05 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
068/8 ARIN 2001-06 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
069/8 ARIN 2002-08 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
070/8 ARIN 2004-01 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
071/8 ARIN 2004-08 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
072/8 ARIN 2004-08 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
073/8 ARIN 2005-03 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
074/8 ARIN 2005-06 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
075/8 ARIN 2005-06 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
076/8 ARIN 2005-06 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
077/8 RIPE NCC 2006-08 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
078/8 RIPE NCC 2006-08 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
079/8 RIPE NCC 2006-08 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
080/8 RIPE NCC 2001-04 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
081/8 RIPE NCC 2001-04 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
082/8 RIPE NCC 2002-11 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
083/8 RIPE NCC 2003-11 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
084/8 RIPE NCC 2003-11 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
085/8 RIPE NCC 2004-04 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
086/8 RIPE NCC 2004-04 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
087/8 RIPE NCC 2004-04 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
088/8 RIPE NCC 2004-04 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
089/8 RIPE NCC 2005-06 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
090/8 RIPE NCC 2005-06 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
091/8 RIPE NCC 2005-06 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
092/8 RIPE NCC 2007-03 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
093/8 RIPE NCC 2007-03 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
094/8 RIPE NCC 2007-07 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
095/8 RIPE NCC 2007-07 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
096/8 ARIN 2006-10 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
097/8 ARIN 2006-10 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
098/8 ARIN 2006-10 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
099/8 ARIN 2006-10 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
100/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
101/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
102/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
103/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
104/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
105/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
106/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
107/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
108/8 ARIN 2008-12 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
109/8 RIPE NCC 2009-01 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
110/8 APNIC 2008-11 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
111/8 APNIC 2008-11 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
112/8 APNIC 2008-05 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
113/8 APNIC 2008-05 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
114/8 APNIC 2007-10 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
115/8 APNIC 2007-10 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
116/8 APNIC 2007-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
117/8 APNIC 2007-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
118/8 APNIC 2007-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
119/8 APNIC 2007-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
120/8 APNIC 2007-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
121/8 APNIC 2006-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
122/8 APNIC 2006-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
123/8 APNIC 2006-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
124/8 APNIC 2005-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
125/8 APNIC 2005-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
126/8 APNIC 2005-01 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
127/8 IANA - Loopback 1981-09 RESERVED [5]
128/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
129/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
130/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
131/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
132/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
133/8 Administered by APNIC 1997-03 whois.apnic.net LEGACY
134/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
135/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
136/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
137/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
138/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
139/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
140/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
141/8 Administered by RIPE NCC 1993-05 whois.ripe.net LEGACY
142/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
143/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
144/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
145/8 Administered by RIPE NCC 1993-05 whois.ripe.net LEGACY
146/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
147/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
148/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
149/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
150/8 Administered by APNIC 1993-05 whois.apnic.net LEGACY
151/8 Administered by RIPE NCC 1993-05 whois.ripe.net LEGACY
152/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
153/8 Administered by APNIC 1993-05 whois.apnic.net LEGACY
154/8 Administered by AfriNIC 1993-05 whois.afrinic.net LEGACY
155/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
156/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
157/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
158/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
159/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
160/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
161/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
162/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
163/8 Administered by APNIC 1993-05 whois.apnic.net LEGACY
164/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
165/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
166/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
167/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
168/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
169/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY [6]
170/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY
171/8 Administered by APNIC 1993-05 whois.apnic.net LEGACY
172/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY [7]
173/8 ARIN 2008-02 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
174/8 ARIN 2008-02 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
175/8 APNIC 2009-08 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
176/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
177/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
178/8 RIPE NCC 2009-01 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
179/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
180/8 APNIC 2009-04 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
181/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
182/8 APNIC 2009-08 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
183/8 APNIC 2009-04 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
184/8 ARIN 2008-12 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
185/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
186/8 LACNIC 2007-09 whois.lacnic.net ALLOCATED
187/8 LACNIC 2007-09 whois.lacnic.net ALLOCATED
188/8 Administered by RIPE NCC 1993-05 whois.ripe.net LEGACY
189/8 LACNIC 1995-06 whois.lacnic.net ALLOCATED
190/8 LACNIC 1995-06 whois.lacnic.net ALLOCATED
191/8 Administered by LACNIC 1993-05 whois.lacnic.net LEGACY
192/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY [8][9]
193/8 RIPE NCC 1993-05 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
194/8 RIPE NCC 1993-05 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
195/8 RIPE NCC 1993-05 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
196/8 Administered by AfriNIC 1993-05 whois.afrinic.net LEGACY
197/8 AfriNIC 2008-10 whois.afrinic.net ALLOCATED
198/8 Administered by ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net LEGACY [10]
199/8 ARIN 1993-05 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
200/8 LACNIC 2002-11 whois.lacnic.net ALLOCATED
201/8 LACNIC 2003-04 whois.lacnic.net ALLOCATED
202/8 APNIC 1993-05 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
203/8 APNIC 1993-05 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED [11]
204/8 ARIN 1994-03 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
205/8 ARIN 1994-03 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
206/8 ARIN 1995-04 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
207/8 ARIN 1995-11 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
208/8 ARIN 1996-04 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
209/8 ARIN 1996-06 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
210/8 APNIC 1996-06 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
211/8 APNIC 1996-06 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
212/8 RIPE NCC 1997-10 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
213/8 RIPE NCC 1993-10 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
214/8 US-DOD 1998-03 LEGACY
215/8 US-DOD 1998-03 LEGACY
216/8 ARIN 1998-04 whois.arin.net ALLOCATED
217/8 RIPE NCC 2000-06 whois.ripe.net ALLOCATED
218/8 APNIC 2000-12 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
219/8 APNIC 2001-09 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
220/8 APNIC 2001-12 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
221/8 APNIC 2002-07 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
222/8 APNIC 2003-02 whois.apnic.net ALLOCATED
223/8 IANA UNALLOCATED
224/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
225/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
226/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
227/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
228/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
229/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
230/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
231/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
232/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
233/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
234/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
235/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
236/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
237/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
238/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
239/8 Multicast 1981-09 RESERVED [12]
240/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
241/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
242/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
243/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
244/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
245/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
246/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
247/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
248/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
249/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
250/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
251/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
252/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
253/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
254/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13]
255/8 Future use 1981-09 RESERVED [13][14]As you can see, there are several different designations for each range. These are mainly the regional providers. There are 5 Regional Providers, AfriNIC, APNIC, ARIN, LACNIC, RIPE NCC. They cover the following areas, Africa, Asia and Pacific, North America, Latin America and the Caribbeans, Europe along with the Middle East and Central Asia, respectively.
The Internet Engineering Task Force is also a high contributor in this process, they work closely with several departments in regards to Internet Standards. Including but not limited to, W3C, ISO, IEC, and other agencies that are either governmental or not. Many of their members also currently have written several RFC technical data's.
Useful content:
http://www.iana.org/numbers/
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Internet Infrastructure
While the Internet is a network infrastructure compromised of several routers, hubs, gateways, switches the hardware is incredibly different then what we use. An example of a carrier-grade router below (Cisco CRS-1, Juniper MX960):
![]()
Some of these devices can route millions of packets per second and commonly have optical interfaces up through but not limited to OC-768 (~40 Gbps). These machines use certain protocols such as Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), Open Shortest First Path (OSPF) and/or Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS, yes it is still in use today) to exchange routing information between networks and varying locations. BGP is the protocol responsible for the maintaining the majority of routing on the Internet. These routers are typically interconnected through fiber optic line laid through cities, country sides, etc.
Just like any local network but on a larger geographical scale, ISPs also have backbone and access layer (PE or Provider Edge) implementations. If you order a circuit or internet connection, the cabling from your location and WAN-facing interface typically makes it back to an interface on one of these devices. For a provider, it is common to 'multiplex' (mux) enterprise grade connections into a single interface. For example, a provider can break a T3/DS3 interface (44.736 Mbit) into 28 separate T1/DS1 (1.544 Mbit) for multiple various customers.
While these devices have implemented their own complexities, they still use the same TCP/IP protocol suite that your router at home uses to transmit and receive data.
While the Internet is a network infrastructure compromised of several routers, hubs, gateways, switches the hardware is incredibly different then what we use. An example of a carrier-grade router below (Cisco CRS-1, Juniper MX960):
Some of these devices can route millions of packets per second and commonly have optical interfaces up through but not limited to OC-768 (~40 Gbps). These machines use certain protocols such as Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), Open Shortest First Path (OSPF) and/or Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS, yes it is still in use today) to exchange routing information between networks and varying locations. BGP is the protocol responsible for the maintaining the majority of routing on the Internet. These routers are typically interconnected through fiber optic line laid through cities, country sides, etc.
Just like any local network but on a larger geographical scale, ISPs also have backbone and access layer (PE or Provider Edge) implementations. If you order a circuit or internet connection, the cabling from your location and WAN-facing interface typically makes it back to an interface on one of these devices. For a provider, it is common to 'multiplex' (mux) enterprise grade connections into a single interface. For example, a provider can break a T3/DS3 interface (44.736 Mbit) into 28 separate T1/DS1 (1.544 Mbit) for multiple various customers.
While these devices have implemented their own complexities, they still use the same TCP/IP protocol suite that your router at home uses to transmit and receive data.
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8,052 Posts
Protocols, OSI and TCP/IP Layer Models, and Packets
Protocols
The OSI Model
The OSI Model was the original foundation of networking as it is known today. The TCP/IP layer is based off of this model. The model's full name is known as the Open Systems Interconnection imitative. There are two contributing factors to this model, the Basic Reference Model and a specific set of Protocols. The OSI Model was developed and is maintained by the International Organization for Standardization. Every layer utilizes its own unique features and brings something different to the table.
OSI Model:
The TCP/IP Layer was created by the United States Department of Defense under the section of DARPANET. Originally evolving from the original basic internet, of which was a wide area network, called Arpanet. In most networking classes I have been in, the first word you will hear associated with this is usually the DoD or the Internet model.
TCP/IP Model:
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In Hexadecimal form, the beginning of the packet looks like this:
Code:
Now, you may be thinking that later stuff just looks like a bunch of jibberish, when will [email protected] ever be used in a transmission? Well, surprisingly, that is all a part of the TCP Segment data. Which contains the data transmission of the website. This is only a part of dozens of packets, each one has its similarities and differences.
Protocols
The OSI Model
The OSI Model was the original foundation of networking as it is known today. The TCP/IP layer is based off of this model. The model's full name is known as the Open Systems Interconnection imitative. There are two contributing factors to this model, the Basic Reference Model and a specific set of Protocols. The OSI Model was developed and is maintained by the International Organization for Standardization. Every layer utilizes its own unique features and brings something different to the table.
OSI Model:
- Application - This layer in the OSI model, is geared specifically for functions that do not exist in the Presentation or Session layer in regards to protocol implementations. Several of these protocols include:
Bittorrent,P2P, BOOTP, DHCP, DNS, IMAP, RTP, RPC, SSH, Telnet, VTP, SMTP SMB, OSCAR (AIM), And more
This layer is present in both the OSI Model and the TCP/IP Model. - Presentation - This layer is representative of how the data is formatted, coded, and delivered. It alleivates the need for the Application layer to worry about data, syntax, conversion needs going down the model.
- Common Application Service Element (CASE) - Usually, common applications are provided with a application specific element that is needed among a variety of programs. In many cases, several CASEs are used by only one application. There are four CASEs that are defined in the OSI Specification, Association Control Service Element, Remote Operations Service Element, Reliable Transfer Service Element, and Commitment, concurrence, and recovery serivce aelements. These all co-ordinate with specific responsibilities in regards to protocols.
Quote:
Originally Posted by http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/OSI-Protocols.html
-Association control service element (ACSE)-Creates associations between two application entities in preparation for application-to-application communication![]()
-Remote operations service element (ROSE)-Implements a request-reply mechanism that permits various remote operations across an application association established by the ACSE![]()
-Reliable transfer service element (RTSE)-Allows ASEs to reliably transfer messages while preserving the transparency of complex lower-layer facilities![]()
-Commitment, concurrence, and recovery service elements (CCRSE)-Coordinates dialogues among multiple application entities.![]()
- Specific Application Service Element (SASE) - This sublayer are ASE's that provide a function used only by the corresponding application Process ID. These can include file transfer, database access, or order functions. There is a wide array of what these can provide and what they function with.
- Common Application Service Element (CASE) - Usually, common applications are provided with a application specific element that is needed among a variety of programs. In many cases, several CASEs are used by only one application. There are four CASEs that are defined in the OSI Specification, Association Control Service Element, Remote Operations Service Element, Reliable Transfer Service Element, and Commitment, concurrence, and recovery serivce aelements. These all co-ordinate with specific responsibilities in regards to protocols.
- Session - The session layer is responsible for synchronizing, collaborating, establishing different streams and making sure that the information is kept on a continuing established connection. A prime example of this is when two video conferencing applications are set up and have an established connection. Say for instance you have Skype up, you see the lips moving, but the audio is two or three seconds late. The Session layer helps keep this syncronized when talking. Another prime example is when using Ventrilo, when you key up to talk, the speaker is green, however at times when you have a high ping, the speaker is yellow and it will take a couple of seconds for it to light up as green.
- Transport - This layer is the basic set of rules of transporting packets to and from their destination.
Here is a comparison chart taken from wikipedia and implemented into Google Spreadsheets that shows the TCP/IP Protocols and their services and features they offer.
http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=tRD85CC8F4D7uElM4lUXx1Q&w=50&h=300 Google Spreadsheet
Again taken from wikipedia
Quote:
The OSI model defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols designated class 0 (TP0) to class 4 (TP4). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the Session Layer. All OSI connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of the classes are shown in the following table.
http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=twpBvRJ4YGIe5kfUhqzLHIQ&w=40&h=490 Google Spreadsheet
- Network - This layer controls IP Addressing (192.168.1.1, 67.220.212.115, etc), Message Forwading, and Connection-oriented and Connectionless communication. Message forwarding is the use of a router or gateway to forward and send packets between networks. In many textbooks, and even in Cisco classes, this layer is often associated with the Internet Layer. While a helpful way to study, the classification is wrong due to the differences between protocols of the two Models. This is when the data is referred to as a Packet.
- Datalink - This layer has two sublayers which are important to both Wide Area Networks, and Local Area Networks. The Data Link layer itself allows for data transfer among two adjacent networking nodes or segments. The frame can change depending on how much information the higher layers need to send or add in overhead for TCP.
- Logical Link Control (LLC) - This upper sub-layer allows multiple protocols to exist within the same network, and to be allowed to flow and be transferred over the same networking media, such as an Network Interface Card. It does this using multiplexing and flow control. This layer is also responsible for error checking, if it is enabled and notified in the request.
- Media Access Control (MAC)- This lower sub-layer provides physical addressing, and channel access control so that a device can communicate together while multiple devices exist. This typically is used in a Local Area Network (LAN), or Metropolitan Area Network(MAN). The addressing mechanism used here is commonly referred to as the MAC Address or the Physical Address. Since a MAC address is a unique number, there will never be two devices that have the same MAC address unless configured as such.
- Physical - This layer is associated with hardware, media, signal, and transmission. The Data Unit here used is a bit, a 1 or 0. Probably by far the most complex layer for the OSI model.
The TCP/IP Layer was created by the United States Department of Defense under the section of DARPANET. Originally evolving from the original basic internet, of which was a wide area network, called Arpanet. In most networking classes I have been in, the first word you will hear associated with this is usually the DoD or the Internet model.
TCP/IP Model:
- Application Layer - Is responsible for such protocols as; http,e-mail, ftp, p2p, etc.
- Transport Layer - This layer is responsible for directing packets, error correction, flow and segmentation control, and port addressing.
- Internet Layer - Is the solution for sending data between one or more networks. This relies heavily on IP Addressing and Routing.
- Hardware Layer - Converts binary code into a usable signal for traveling across medias such as Cat5e, Copper Cabling, Fiber-Optics, etc.
In Hexadecimal form, the beginning of the packet looks like this:
Code:
Code:
0000 02 04 4b 14 d6 26 00 13 10 f9 4b 62 08 00 45 00 ..K..&.. ..Kb..E.0010 05 dc 41 c7 40 00 34 06 d1 ff 43 dc d4 73 0a 0a [email protected] ..C..s..0020 0a fc 00 50 05 0a 54 65 a7 c3 e6 22 0f 89 50 10 ...P..Te ..."..P.0030 1e ae d5 0c 00 00 48 54 54 50 2f 31 2e 31 20 32 ......HT TP/1.1 20040 30 30 20 4f 4b 0d 0a 44 61 74 65 3a 20 54 75 65 00 OK..D ate: Tue0050 2c 20 32 34 20 4e 6f 76 20 32 30 30 39 20 30 37 , 24 Nov 2009 070060 3a 35 31 3a 32 37 20 47 4d 54 0d 0a 53 65 72 76 :51:27 G MT..Serv0070 65 72 3a 20 41 70 61 63 68 65 0d 0a 58 2d 50 6f er: Apac he..X-Po0080 77 65 72 65 64 2d 42 79 3a 20 50 48 50 2f 35 2e wered-By : PHP/5.0090 31 2e 36 0d 0a 43 61 63 68 65 2d 43 6f 6e 74 72 1.6..Cac he-Contr00a0 6f 6c 3a 20 70 72 69 76 61 74 65 2c 20 6d 61 78 ol: priv ate, max00b0 2d 61 67 65 3d 30 0d 0a 50 72 61 67 6d 61 3a 20 -age=0.. Pragma: 00c0 70 72 69 76 61 74 65 0d 0a 58 2d 55 41 2d 43 6f private. .X-UA-Co00d0 6d 70 61 74 69 62 6c 65 3a 20 49 45 3d 37 0d 0a mpatible : IE=7..00e0 43 6f 6e 74 65 6e 74 2d 45 6e 63 6f 64 69 6e 67 Content- Encoding00f0 3a 20 67 7a 69 70 0d 0a 43 6f 6e 74 65 6e 74 2d : gzip.. Content-0100 4c 65 6e 67 74 68 3a 20 33 38 35 31 39 0d 0a 45 Length: 38519..E0110 78 70 69 72 65 73 3a 20 54 75 65 2c 20 32 34 20 xpires: Tue, 24 0120 4e 6f 76 20 32 30 30 39 20 30 37 3a 35 31 3a 32 Nov 2009 07:51:20130 37 20 47 4d 54 0d 0a 43 6f 6e 74 65 6e 74 2d 54 7 GMT..C ontent-T0140 79 70 65 3a 20 74 65 78 74 2f 68 74 6d 6c 3b 20 ype: tex t/html; 0150 63 68 61 72 73 65 74 3d 49 53 4f 2d 38 38 35 39 charset= ISO-88590160 2d 31 0d 0a 0d 0a 1f 8b 08 00 00 00 00 00 00 ff -1...... ........0170 ec bd 69 77 db d6 d5 06 fa 39 5d ab ff e1 98 69 ..iw.... .9]....i0180 2b 27 15 48 02 e0 28 5b f2 d5 68 ab d5 54 49 1e +'.H..([ ..h..TI.0190 da dc 2c 05 24 41 11 16 09 30 00 28 8a e9 7b ff ..,.$A.. .0.(..{.01a0 fb 7d f6 3e 00 08 90 e0 04 49 89 54 cb 19 4c 82 .}.>.... .I.T..L.01b0 38 f3 3e 7b 1e de be da 3b dd bd fc f7 d9 be e8 8.>{.... ;.......01c0 f8 bd ae 38 fb b8 73 74 b8 2b 72 4a a1 f0 59 df ...8..st .+rJ..Y.01d0 2d 14 f6 2e f7 c4 97 0f 97 c7 47 42 cd 17 c5 a5 -....... ..GB....01e0 6b d8 9e e5 5b 8e 6d 74 0b 85 fd 93 9c c8 75 7c k...[.mt ......u|01f0 bf bf 51 28 0c 87 c3 fc 50 cf 3b ee 75 e1 f2 bc ..Q(.... P.;.u...0200 70 47 7d a9 d4 38 f8 a8 f8 b1 96 f9 96 df ca 6d pG}..8.. .......m0210 fd f9 4f 6f 79 c4 bb 5e d7 f6 36 53 fa 51 eb f5 ..Ooy..^ ..6S.Q..0220 ba 6c 9e 13 2d cb dd cc 75 7d 37 27 ba 86 7d bd .l..-... u}7'..}.0230 99 33 6d d9 81 69 b4 d0 d1 77 6f 5f 29 8a b0 1d .3m..i.. .wo_)...0240 d1 34 9a 1d 53 74 f0 d4 74 3d a1 28 fc 5b cf f4 .4..St.. t=.(.[..0250 0d 2c ce ef 2b e6 af 03 eb 76 33 77 e6 1a d7 3d .,..+... .v3w...=0260 23 27 9a 8e ed 9b b6 bf 99 b3 1d 85 5b e6 44 21 #'...... ....[.D!0270 bd c5 fe 5d df 72 4d 2f d6 44 51 67 be bc 4b 93 ...].rM/ .DQg..K.0280 50 76 d1 b9 eb 74 63 4d 26 47 a1 39 9b 76 6b e6 Pv...tcM &G.9.vk.0290 bc bb 96 7d 23 5c b3 bb 99 6b 1a b6 63 5b 4d 03 ...}#\\.. .k..c[M.02a0 bd 75 5c b3 9d d8 2c e7 d6 74 9b 5d a7 79 93 b7 .u\\...,. .t.].y..02b0 4d bf 40 93 fa d3 5b 5e b1 6d f4 cc cd 1c 7e b5 [email protected][^ .m....~.02c0 da 23 e5 16 d3 8d 96 5b e9 fd fd a6 5b 18 5c de .#.....[ ....[.\\.02d0 1c 7d fe 62 9e 79 d7 e7 7a d1 fe a7 dd 1a 7e dc .}.b.y.. z.....~.02e0 6b d5 ea e7 95 ff f4 ad d3 ae f5 f9 e2 e4 d3 4d k....... .......M02f0 73 33 27 e8 a0 a6 b6 90 56 87 ad 53 2e 47 7d 33 s3'..... V..S.G}30300 d6 b3 6f de f9 05 3a d5 37 a2 d9 31 5c cf f4 37 ..o...:. 7..1\\..70310 0f 2f 4e 95 5a ad 5c 0f 37 2c 3e b9 6b d3 36 5d ./N.Z.\\. 7,>.k.6]0320 c3 77 70 ac d1 e4 6e 77 06 dd ae e9 5b b6 d0 f3 .wp...nw ....[...0330 b5 7c 49 ee 72 38 05 b9 a6 1b 73 34 74 dc 56 fc .|I.r8.. ..s4t.V.0340 38 a2 5d b0 ec eb f5 e8 cb f8 93 68 3b ee a0 17 8.]..... ...h;...0350 fb de 74 7a fd 81 6f 62 64 3a f2 f8 a4 5a a6 d7 ..tz..ob d:...Z..0360 74 ad 3e 01 79 6c 5a db b6 88 ba c5 18 b2 3f d1 t.>.ylZ. ......?.0370 32 6f 1d df 6c 09 df 11 3d e3 ce ea 59 bf d1 6f 2o..l... =...Y..o0380 3e 60 b0 6f ba 18 b2 67 d8 4d 53 38 6d 71 ed 1a >`.o...g .MS8mq..0390 fd 8e d5 f4 00 a1 98 f8 ba d8 3d fb 88 ff f7 1c ........ ..=.....03a0 bc ea 36 1c f9 ec 7c fb 58 18 80 07 13 67 36 f2 ..6...|. X....g6.03b0 3b d4 93 d9 f5 4c 0c 35 c0 53 0b 17 af 65 8a 91 ;....L.5 .S...e..03c0 33 70 b1 59 72 f2 e8 cd 33 f3 e1 16 61 19 04 52 3p.Yr... 3...a..R03d0 bb 17 17 e2 c2 1f 75 4d af 63 9a be bc 04 6f 3d ......uM .c....o=03e0 7a 20 7c 9c d6 66 8e 0f a9 e9 61 fb ac 16 00 a4 z |..f.. ..a.....03f0 11 ec f7 15 3d c2 5e 14 7e fc f1 cf 7f fa 51 4c ....=.^. ~.....QL0400 9c 03 75 4b 8f b9 e7 0d b1 f6 99 26 f3 c9 32 87 ..uK.... ...&..2.0410 6b 6f e4 33 71 b8 b7 21 d4 12 de 29 fc f9 4f 0d ko.3q..! ...)..O.0420 a7 35 fa f3 9f fe 8b 9b d9 30 9a 37 d7 2e ad 60 .5...... .0.7...`0430 43 7c 5f aa 94 2b 95 9d 37 78 dc 74 ba 8e 8b 27 C|_..+.. 7x.t...'0440 6d fe 43 4f da 80 a8 0d 51 ef fb 02 cb 6f 19 b6 m.CO.... Q....o..0450 b1 2e 08 3c 6e f1 77 77 d0 b4 5a f8 7b 4d 7e a0 ...<n.ww ..Z.{M~.0460 cd b4 5b e6 da ba 30 5c cb e8 ae e3 be 77 6f 01 ..[...0\\ .....wo.0470 31 4d bc e2 01 3f 29 1e c1 3c f5 d9 33 dc 6b cb 1M...?). .<..3.k.0480 de 10 c5 fe 5d fc 3f fa a9 6f b4 5a d8 61 fe 0d ....].?. .o.Z.a..0490 df ff bf 3f ff c9 d8 a0 0b b7 2e 68 ee 57 06 7d ...?.... ...h.W.}04a0 96 2b 08 a7 aa e1 4f 7d 37 7c f7 d6 02 1e 34 5b .+....O} 7|....4[04b0 e1 eb c1 d7 79 2d 3a 04 3f 98 f3 86 d1 f4 ad 5b ....y-:. ?......[04c0 33 6c c9 8f 93 ed 0e 0e 4a a5 62 51 8e 94 ef 1b 3l...... J.bQ....04d0 d7 e6 6a 5b 89 b5 f8 98 98 df 59 17 7d 6c 9e 25 ..j[.... ..Y.}l.%04e0 5b 3f c2 fe 62 a0 bc df c0 4d 34 dd 94 19 56 6a [?..b... .M4...Vj04f0 d5 52 4d a7 bd 0e 77 b0 c8 7f e8 89 6c 04 78 c1 .RM...w. ....l.x.0500 c1 78 4e d7 6a c5 60 83 7b 6d 1a 7e 4a 97 e8 70 .xN.j.`. {m.~J..p0510 67 bb 1c ef f2 80 ff d0 13 b9 be 86 d3 6d 3d 2c g....... .....m=,0520 10 85 d3 c1 c1 49 f8 c8 fb 98 5c 1a 80 8c 61 99 .....I.. ..\\...a.0530 6e 98 d2 32 9b 0e 90 1b d0 c8 06 50 bc 6d 62 92 n..2.... ...P.mb.0540 b1 be 22 f8 09 ba 4b 05 a0 95 7a 0c e0 8b fb 8b .."...K. ..z.....0550 41 59 d0 7f 2a 98 1d 1c 54 2a b4 77 53 f3 c5 75 AY..*... T*.wS..u0560 35 5d 2c 37 9a 34 91 d4 94 03 29 97 ca 66 a5 b5 5],7.4.. ..)..f..0570 f0 40 54 ba 80 0f 76 ad 79 17 69 42 b1 23 a1 af [email protected] y.iB.#..0580 69 67 12 c1 47 bc 51 6c ef 65 bb d4 cd 4f 6d 1a ig..G.Ql .e...Om.0590 6d 72 30 7e 78 97 f3 40 e4 34 83 19 db 7c 70 10 [email protected] .4...|p.05a0 9e 7e db 71 d2 20 7b 7c 35 c2 cb 92 1c 9e 9a c5 .~.q. {| 5.......05b0 96 4b 5f 17 2f 37 68 14 5b ae 6c b7 c4 72 83 a6 .K_./7h. [.l..r..05c0 d1 72 83 ef e3 e5 ca 9e 66 2c 97 a1 8a 76 dc e8 .r...... f,...v..05d0 fa ea ba e0 bf b6 19 eb a5 c0 d0 41 99 fe 89 c3 ........ ...A....05e0 50 b4 19 41 17 9a ec 42 9b d9 P..A...B ..
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8,052 Posts
Things to consider when you have Internet Problems
Taken from this thread with procpuarie's permission.
DSL:
Solutions to Common Problems
Internet Connectivity
Code:
Or restart the computer.
__________________________________________________
Windows XP:
This command allows you to output all actions to a log that will be saved on the C:\\ drive.
Code:
You could also use the program located here.
Windows Vista/7:
Code:
For more information about the Windows netsh command, please read up on it here.
If you have done all the following, or if you can use another internet source such as a school, a neighbor (with their permission), etc, then it is most likely your ISP and something on their end. The only thing you can do in that instance is wait. The website/server could be down and not loading for anyone. If that is the case, I would try this site: http://downforeveryoneorjustme.com/.
__________________________________________________
As far as I am aware, they do not provide support for third-party firmware such as, DD-WRT, Tomato, pfsense, untangled, etc.
__________________________________________________
Networking Connectivity
Mr. Nude_Lewd_Man's troubleshooting guide for xDSL and Virgin Media (as attached in a post below)
How to troubleshoot Internet Connection Issues with xDSL
Written by: Nude_Lewd_Man, 16 Dec 09
Description of why you would be performing this task:
A user can't access the internet.
Procedures and steps
1. Check what type of connection the user has to their 'router'. Most of the following relate to modem/router/firewall/switch combination devices, and although most can also be replicated for other xDSL connections, those who use Virgin Media (formerly NTL or Telewest) or 3G USB dongles have different steps.
2. Ask the user to PING the router. Get them to go Start > Run > type "cmd" > [Enter] > type "ipconfig" > [Enter] > note the "Gateway" address > type "PING <router IP>" [Enter]. Also ask them to PING an external IP - you can ping a site from your computer and give them the IP for them to "PING <IP>" [Enter]…
3. While they're doing this, try to connect onto their computer, if you can connect then it is likely to be a DNS issue. It is also advisable to check whether they are connected by wirelessly or with an ethernet/network cable.
4. If you can't connect, ask them to go to the router. Get them to tell you which lights are flashing, and what colour the lights are. Bear in mind that normally only one of the <number> lights will blink (in orange on ZyXELs) per computer that has an active wired connection.
5. If there is no blinking LED for the internet light, ask them to turn the router off, wait 10 seconds and power it back up again. This normally takes around 1-3 minutes to get back to full operational state. (For USB xDSL modems, get the user to remove the USB cable from their computer for 10 seconds)
6. Ask them to keep you updated with which lights are flashing; you mainly want to know about the DSL/Internet LED. This is likely to flicker up green at first, if it goes orange this points towards there being an issue.
7. A lot of, but not all, users should have a (analogue) handset in their location, as them to pick this up and let you know whether there is a dial tone. It is a good idea to get the user to confirm that there is a 'ADSL Filter' in place: there needs to be on between each wall (phone) socket and any telecommunication device - voicemail, Sky (TV) boxes can all count, as do some 'monitored' alarms.
8. If there isn't a dial tone, or if the line has a lot of noise/crackle, then this points to an issue with the line. If there is a tone but it is noisy, check whether there is a spare filter and ask them to swap this with the one currently in use, then try the line again.
9. If there isn't a dial tone, or if the line is still noisy/crackly after changing the filter, this needs to be taken up with BT. Check www.bt.com for contact details, and get in touch. If there is no dial tone, this could be that the bill hasn't been paid or that there is an infrastructure fault - the latter needs to be dealt with by BT OpenReach.
10. If there is no (unusual) noise, you can test how far the connection can get by using some special credentials, but this would need to be done on site (unless they have access into the router's configuration pages). These credentials follow. Ensure you have the user take down their Login Name (paste into Notepad/etc) before getting them to change it in the router.
http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=t_P8bQ7Lx6cASX7VG0UHloA&w=75&h=200 Google Spreadsheet
The credentials above can only access a VERY limited number of pages, which are listed here:
www.bt.net/digitaldemo (http://193.113.211.125/digitaldemo)
http://speedtester.bt.net (http://217.32.105.42)
As a brief explanation of the above see the image below:
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How to troubleshoot Internet Connection Issues with Virgin Media
Written by: Nude_Lewd_Man, 16 Dec 09
Description of why you would be performing this task:
A user can't access the internet.
Procedures and steps
Virgin doesn't use xDSL, but can provide digital television through their single cable to the property. The internet will/can also be carried through this same cable; connection is made by the cable modem to the Virgin Media servers/network directly and there is no password on the internet account.
Taken from this thread with procpuarie's permission.
DSL:
- Have you connected the modem straight to your computer?
- Do you have DSL line filters connected to all your phones running on the same phone line?
- Is the telephone cable connecting your DSL modem to your phone jack less then six (6) feet long? Does it have any bare wires or damage?
- How far away are you from your central office (click here)? Is it more then four (4) kilometers (2.5 miles)?
- Do you live in an older area (older homes/telephone infrastructure)?
- Is the telephone wiring poor in your house?
- Have you connected the modem straight to your computer?
- Is your modem connected to a coax splitter or smiler device?
- Do you have a coax filter connected to your modem (or any line your modem runs through)?
- Is the coax cable connected to your modem free of any bare wires or damage?
- Is the modem of the correct version of DOCSIS for your line speed?
- Is the coax wiring poor in your house?
Solutions to Common Problems
Internet Connectivity
- Problem: You recently hooked up a router or new computer to your modem and your internet browser does not load pages.
Code:
Code:
ipconfig /releaseipconfig /renew__________________________________________________
- Problem: You can currently connect to AIM, Skype, IRC, however you can not connect to websites.
Windows XP:
This command allows you to output all actions to a log that will be saved on the C:\\ drive.
Code:
Code:
netsh int ip reset c:\
esetlog.txtnetsh winsock reset catalogWindows Vista/7:
Code:
Code:
netsh winsock reset (make sure you are elevated or have disabled UAC)If you have done all the following, or if you can use another internet source such as a school, a neighbor (with their permission), etc, then it is most likely your ISP and something on their end. The only thing you can do in that instance is wait. The website/server could be down and not loading for anyone. If that is the case, I would try this site: http://downforeveryoneorjustme.com/.
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- Problem: Your game can not connect to a server, or you are having a hard time getting a game or application to work with the internet.
As far as I am aware, they do not provide support for third-party firmware such as, DD-WRT, Tomato, pfsense, untangled, etc.
__________________________________________________
Networking Connectivity
- Problem: You are trying to turn your Wireless Home Router into a Wireless Access Point to extend range. Whatever reason though, you are having issues setting it up.
Answer: Most home routers can normally be set up as limited, or complete Wireless Access Points. How do you do this you ask? Look below.Thanks to Enterprise for his picture![]()
- Log into your router using it's IP address. You can accomplish this by going to your browser. Finding the URL Bar, and inputting it there.
- You will then be prompted for a username and password. These differ for each firmware, and model/manufacturer of router. So read the manual for instructions in this case.
- You will be prompted with this screen (Looks similar in almost all instances for Linksys routers)
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- You should see Internet Connection Type for most routers, this should either be left as is or set to disabled if that is an option.
- For the Local IP Address, change it to something outside of the DHCP Range of your current router. So, if Router 1 has a DHCP Range of 50 Addresses, and it starts at 192.168.1.100 any IP range from 192.168.1.2 to 192.168.1.99 will work.
- Now, go to the Security Tab and disable the Firewall so that it has the following items disabled:
Thank you coldrush for the below picture.
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- Now, finally go into your NAT/QoS tab. You will need to disable any port forwarding, UPnP, or Quality Of Service you have set up.
- Now, go to the Wireless tab. And put the SSID that you want to repeat.
So, for example, say Router 1's Wireless SSID is ABCDEFG, and you want to extend it's range on Router 2. Go to the Wireless tab on Router 2 and use the Wireless SSID as ABCDEFG. Make sure that you don't use the same Wireless Channel, on both routers, or there will be errors/issues with being able to connect. Preferably, you always want to use channels seperate from each other, so, Router 1 is broadcasting on Channel 1, you would preferably want Router 2 to broadcast on Channel 11. If you have three or more routers, you would want to rotate the channel broadcasting, Router 1 broadcasting on channel 1, Router 2 broadcasting on channel 6, Router 3 broadcasting on channel 11, Router 4 broadcasting on Channel 1, and so on.
Mr. Nude_Lewd_Man's troubleshooting guide for xDSL and Virgin Media (as attached in a post below)
How to troubleshoot Internet Connection Issues with xDSL
Written by: Nude_Lewd_Man, 16 Dec 09
Description of why you would be performing this task:
A user can't access the internet.
Procedures and steps
1. Check what type of connection the user has to their 'router'. Most of the following relate to modem/router/firewall/switch combination devices, and although most can also be replicated for other xDSL connections, those who use Virgin Media (formerly NTL or Telewest) or 3G USB dongles have different steps.
2. Ask the user to PING the router. Get them to go Start > Run > type "cmd" > [Enter] > type "ipconfig" > [Enter] > note the "Gateway" address > type "PING <router IP>" [Enter]. Also ask them to PING an external IP - you can ping a site from your computer and give them the IP for them to "PING <IP>" [Enter]…
3. While they're doing this, try to connect onto their computer, if you can connect then it is likely to be a DNS issue. It is also advisable to check whether they are connected by wirelessly or with an ethernet/network cable.
4. If you can't connect, ask them to go to the router. Get them to tell you which lights are flashing, and what colour the lights are. Bear in mind that normally only one of the <number> lights will blink (in orange on ZyXELs) per computer that has an active wired connection.
5. If there is no blinking LED for the internet light, ask them to turn the router off, wait 10 seconds and power it back up again. This normally takes around 1-3 minutes to get back to full operational state. (For USB xDSL modems, get the user to remove the USB cable from their computer for 10 seconds)
6. Ask them to keep you updated with which lights are flashing; you mainly want to know about the DSL/Internet LED. This is likely to flicker up green at first, if it goes orange this points towards there being an issue.
7. A lot of, but not all, users should have a (analogue) handset in their location, as them to pick this up and let you know whether there is a dial tone. It is a good idea to get the user to confirm that there is a 'ADSL Filter' in place: there needs to be on between each wall (phone) socket and any telecommunication device - voicemail, Sky (TV) boxes can all count, as do some 'monitored' alarms.
8. If there isn't a dial tone, or if the line has a lot of noise/crackle, then this points to an issue with the line. If there is a tone but it is noisy, check whether there is a spare filter and ask them to swap this with the one currently in use, then try the line again.
9. If there isn't a dial tone, or if the line is still noisy/crackly after changing the filter, this needs to be taken up with BT. Check www.bt.com for contact details, and get in touch. If there is no dial tone, this could be that the bill hasn't been paid or that there is an infrastructure fault - the latter needs to be dealt with by BT OpenReach.
10. If there is no (unusual) noise, you can test how far the connection can get by using some special credentials, but this would need to be done on site (unless they have access into the router's configuration pages). These credentials follow. Ensure you have the user take down their Login Name (paste into Notepad/etc) before getting them to change it in the router.
http://spreadsheets.google.com/pub?key=t_P8bQ7Lx6cASX7VG0UHloA&w=75&h=200 Google Spreadsheet
The credentials above can only access a VERY limited number of pages, which are listed here:
www.bt.net/digitaldemo (http://193.113.211.125/digitaldemo)
http://speedtester.bt.net (http://217.32.105.42)
As a brief explanation of the above see the image below:
How to troubleshoot Internet Connection Issues with Virgin Media
Written by: Nude_Lewd_Man, 16 Dec 09
Description of why you would be performing this task:
A user can't access the internet.
Procedures and steps
Virgin doesn't use xDSL, but can provide digital television through their single cable to the property. The internet will/can also be carried through this same cable; connection is made by the cable modem to the Virgin Media servers/network directly and there is no password on the internet account.
- As in step 2 above, get the user to ensure that they have a (valid) IP address, and get them to PING their gateway IP address. Again, it is a good idea to give them the IP of an internet site (that allows PING replies) to test the connection.
- Below is an image of a Virgin Cable Modem. It should have the "power", "enet", "sync" and "ready" lights on. If any of these lights aren't on, then this will need to be restarted. If the user has this and also a firewall/switch/WAP between their computer and the cable modem, then this normally/often needs to be restarted too. If they connect their computer directly to this box, then disconnect the network cable.
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- If it does need to be restarted, then power down the cable modem and any firewall/switch device connected to it. After about 30 seconds, they can restart the cable modem.
- While the cable modem is starting up, the lights will flicker and go off. Once the "sync" light has stabilised (to permanently on) and then the "ready" light has done the same, the user should then start any other device/s that were powered down, before finally restarting/reconnecting any other computers/devices. (The reason for this is that (in the past at least) Virgin/NTL/Telewest used to 'lock down' their connections to the MAC address of the first device after the cable modem.)
- If the "sync" and/or "ready" light don't go on, or aren't constant, then the user will need to get in touch with Virgin Media. They should be able to dial 150 (from their Virgin Media telephone), otherwise their contact details should be found on their website http://www.virginmedia.com/
Joined
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8,052 Posts
If anyone has anything they would like included in the Networking or Internet Connectivity issues, please feel free to comment or drop me a PM of what you want added. I will do my best to make it understanding and comprehensible for all.
Feel free to comment, I do realize that the Internet Infrastructure was not very well explained. I am currently looking through several material to expand on that further.
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Hope you enjoy reading it, if you can understand it.
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Thanks,
GH0
Feel free to comment, I do realize that the Internet Infrastructure was not very well explained. I am currently looking through several material to expand on that further.
Hope you enjoy reading it, if you can understand it.
Thanks,
GH0
Joined
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3,289 Posts
Here are a couple of troubleshooting guides I've (just split from the original, as that was too big for a single attachment, but have) created at a couple of places I've worked - which I've used the training at an ISP and general troubleshooting I've done to write....
One is for ADSL (but can prolly be generalised for xDSL, as per the name) and the other is for Virgin connections. This is certainly good enough for getting UK internet connections sorted out, but a lot of what is in there should be transferable to other countries...
One is for ADSL (but can prolly be generalised for xDSL, as per the name) and the other is for Virgin connections. This is certainly good enough for getting UK internet connections sorted out, but a lot of what is in there should be transferable to other countries...
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795 Posts
I think this is a great idea I would change a few things though. A that a switch create's networks where as a router combines networks. (And if I am wording this correctly trying to remember this of the top of my head) a switch creates separate collision domains and a router connects broadcast domains.
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I have been wondering, what does the "internet"'s MAIN server look like? (the machine that actually chucks around the internet to other computers)
????????
????????
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3,289 Posts
Quote:
Top result:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet
Quote:
http://lmgtfy.com/?q=internet
Top result:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet
Quote:
There is no such thing as "the internet's main server". INTERconnected NETworks...the clue is in the name..
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